World Wars & Modern International Relations | Study Notes

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APUNTES CONTEMPORARY WORLD HISTORY Bachelor's Degree in International Relations Ramon Llull University AprenAI 2026-2027 Key notes on WWI, the Paris Peace Conference, the Treaty of Versailles, Middle East border changes, the League of Nations, and the UN's founding in 1945.

APREN.AI Contents 1 World War I: Outbreak, Dynamics, and Devastation Roots and Escalation of the Conflict Warfare Conditions and Devastating Human Toll 2 Wilson's Fourteen Points and the Paris Peace Conference Wilson's Vision for Post-War Order The Paris Peace Conference of 1919 3 The Treaty of Versailles and Territorial Reshuffling Punitive Terms Imposed on Germany Collapse of Dynastic Empires and New European Borders Reorganization of the Middle East 4 International Organizations: League of Nations and the UN The League of Nations: Aspirations and Failures Media Propaganda and Wartime Discrimination Foundation of the United Nations (1945) 5 Review Summary World War I and Wilsonian Diplomacy Peace Negotiations and the Treaty of Versailles Post-Imperial Reorganization Collective Security Organizations Key Historical Chronology Answers to the review questions These notes may contain errors or omissions.

They are study support and do not replace the official syllabus or your teachers: check important information. World Wars & Modern International Relations " Study Notes 1 1 World War I: Outbreak, Dynamics, and Devastation BY THE END YOU WILL BE ABLE TO Explain the alliance triggers that escalated the Sarajevo assassination into global war. Identify the human toll and technological aftermath of trench warfare, including the 1925 Geneva ban. THINK BEFORE YOU READ 1 How did a localized assassination in the Balkans spark a war across the entire European continent?

Roots and Escalation of the Conflict Between 1910 and 1913, major powers pursued an intense arms race, spending substantial resources to amass weapons under the justification of defensive deterrence. Meanwhile, the Balkan Peninsula became a powder keg in 1912–1913 due to Balkanization and the decline of the Ottoman Empire. The immediate flashpoint occurred in Sarajevo in 1914, when a Serb, Gavrilo Princip, assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne. This event triggered an uncontainable diplomatic chain reaction through mutual defense pacts: Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to Serbia and commenced military operations.

1 Russia declared war on Austria-Hungary to protect Serbia. 2 Germany declared war on Russia to back its Austro-Hungarian ally. 3 France declared war on Germany and Austria-Hungary in solidarity with Russia and Serbia. 4 World Wars & Modern International Relations " Study Notes 2 PROCESS Chain Reaction of Declarations in 1914 Warfare Conditions and Devastating Human Toll The conflict mobilized vast alliances. The Allies comprised Russia, Serbia, France, Great Britain, and their overseas colonial empires. Troops confronted brutal conditions in muddy, unsanitary trenches, where exposure and disease caused countless deaths beyond active combat.

The entrance of the United States on the Allied side served as a decisive turning point, shifting the strategic balance toward an Allied victory. The conflict resulted in 17 million dead and 20 million wounded, generating profound psychological trauma across entire generations. DEFINITION Post-war trauma describes the widespread psychological devastation and societal shock experienced by soldiers and civilian populations after enduring prolonged industrial warfare. Recognizing the unprecedented horror of modern munitions, the international community convened the Congress of Geneva in 1925, which enacted an official ban on chemical weapons.

CHECK 2 Why was the Balkan region decisive in triggering the continental escalation of 1914? COMMON ERROR Do not confuse the Congress of Geneva (1925) with the immediate 1919 peace treaties. The Geneva agreement specifically targeted chemical warfare prohibitions years after the war had ended.

Sarajevo Assassination Gavrilo Princip kills Austrian heir Franz Ferdinand 1 Austro-Serbian Clash Austria-Hungary sends ultimatum and initiates war 2 Russian Mobilization Russia declares war against Austria-Hungary to defend Serbia 3 German Intervention Germany declares war on Russia to back Vienna 4 French Commitment France declares war on Germany and Austria-Hungary 5 World Wars & Modern International Relations " Study Notes 3 KEY IDEAS The pre-war period witnessed rapid militarization and instability across the Balkans following the decline of the Ottoman Empire. The 1914 Sarajevo assassination triggered a network of mutual alliance commitments, sparking global war.

Trench warfare created unprecedented casualties, totaling 17 million dead and 20 million wounded. US entry tipped the scales toward the Allied powers, culminating in a 1925 prohibition on chemical weapons at Geneva. CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 3. What military event in Sarajevo triggered the alliance declarations of 1914? 4. Which agreement formally banned chemical arms after World War I, and in which year? Quiz Circle the correct answer. The answers are at the end. 5. What primary justification did global powers provide for the arms race between 1910 and 1913? 6. Which power declared war immediately after Russia supported Serbia against Austria- Hungary? 7.

How many military and civilian deaths were recorded as a consequence of World War I? 8. What decisive role did the United States play upon joining the conflict?

Naval trade dominance a) Colonial conquest b) Preventive security c) Economic expansion d) Great Britain a) Germany b) The United States c) The Ottoman Empire d) 17 million a) 33 million b) 20 million c) 7 million d) It supplied chemical arms a) It mediated peace instantly b) It remained strictly defensive c) It decisively aided Allies d) World Wars & Modern International Relations " Study Notes 4 2 Wilson's Fourteen Points and the Paris Peace Conference BY THE END YOU WILL BE ABLE TO Detail the fundamental tenets of Wilson's Fourteen Points. Contrast the conditions of the 1919 Paris Peace Conference with the 1815 Congress of Vienna.

THINK BEFORE YOU READ 9 Why did victorious European leaders reject the cooperative peace proposed by the United States? Wilson's Vision for Post-War Order In 1918, facing the end of fighting, US President Woodrow Wilson addressed the question of enduring stability through his Fourteen Points. Wilson's program sought to build collective security, uphold public diplomacy, and avert future conflicts. Dimension Wilson's Proposed Principles Diplomatic & Economic Open diplomacy without secret pacts; freedom of navigation on the seas; equal trade conditions across nations; national armament reductions.

Territorial Adjustments Evacuation of Russian territory; restoration of Belgium; return of Alsace-Lorraine to France; readjustment of Italian frontiers; autonomous development within Austria- Hungary; evacuation of Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro; sovereignty for the Turkish core with autonomy for other nationalities; creation of an independent Poland. Global Security Establishment of an international organization to arbitrate disputes and maintain peace under collective security rules. Despite championing national self-determination and worldwide peace, Wilson faced profound skepticism. Major participants at the subsequent peace negotiations declined to embrace these idealistic goals fully.

The Paris Peace Conference of 1919 The Paris Peace Conference opened in 1919 and lasted six months. Delegates sought to structure a new international framework that would prevent another global catastrophe. Official targets centered on assigning legal blame and fixing punishments for war crimes. An unspoken priority was exacting financial and geopolitical retribution against Germany.

World Wars & Modern International Relations " Study Notes 5 CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES Catastrophic War Losses Allied demand to punish war crimes and assign responsibility Fear of Bolshevism Anxiety over spreading socialist revolution from Russia Desire for Revenge Intention to make Germany shoulder total financial blame The Paris Peace Conference (1919) Global Border Redrawing Restructuring Europe, Africa, Asia, and Middle East Clashing National Claims Emergence of new nationalities and suffrage movements Negotiators worked in an atmosphere heightened by fears of a spreading Bolshevik Revolution.

Concurrently, distinct nationalities voiced claims for statehood, while the women's suffrage movement pressed for political rights. Aspect Congress of Vienna (1815) Paris Peace Conference (1919) Geographic Scope Exclusively European borders Global: Europe, Middle East, Asia, and Africa Historical Timing 26 years after French Revolution began; settled quietly at leisure Immediate aftermath of war and Russian Revolution Public Scrutiny Secretive elite diplomacy Intense public and media scrutiny Delegation Size 5 countries; 15 British delegates 30 countries; 400 British delegates CHECK 10 How did the operational environment of the Paris Peace Conference differ from the 1815 Congress of Vienna?

TO REMEMBER Remember the three core tenets summarizing Wilson's agenda: national self-determination, disarmament and free commerce, and collective security via a global organization. World Wars & Modern International Relations " Study Notes 6 KEY IDEAS Wilson proposed the Fourteen Points in 1918 to ensure international transparency, trade equality, and national self-determination. Major European delegates resisted Wilson's idealistic proposals in favor of assigning war guilt and seeking retribution. The Paris Peace Conference lasted six months under intense public scrutiny and fears of Bolshevik revolution.

Unlike the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Paris addressed global territories across Asia, Africa, and the Middle East with 30 represented states. CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 11. What unstated goal motivated European leaders at the Paris Peace Conference? 12. How did delegation sizes compare between Vienna (1815) and Paris (1919) for Great Britain? Quiz Circle the correct answer. The answers are at the end. 13. In what year did Woodrow Wilson announce his Fourteen Points speech? 14. Which overarching principle underpinned Wilson's territorial proposals for ethnic groups? 15. How long did deliberations continue during the 1919 Paris Peace Conference? 16.

How many countries were formally represented at the Paris Peace Conference? 1919 a) 1925 b) 1918 c) 1914 d) Colonial expansion a) Imperial restoration b) Total annexation c) Right to self-determination d) Six months a) One year b) Three months c) Two years d) 5 nations a) 30 nations b) 15 nations c) 51 nations d) World Wars & Modern International Relations " Study Notes 7 3 The Treaty of Versailles and Territorial Reshuffling BY THE END YOU WILL BE ABLE TO Enumerate the territorial, military, and financial penalties imposed on Germany by the Treaty of Versailles. Outline the territorial divisions and state creations across Eastern Europe and the Middle East.

THINK BEFORE YOU READ 17 How did the dissolution of centuries-old empires transform the political geography of the Middle East? Punitive Terms Imposed on Germany The Treaty of Versailles presented extensive, humiliating conditions to the German delegation. The Allies rejected every compromise offered by Germany and threatened a military invasion until German delegates agreed to sign. Dimension Conditions Imposed on Germany Territorial Losses Forfeiture of 13% of domestic land and 7 million people, including Alsace-Lorraine. Loss of all colonies across Africa and the Pacific. Financial Penalties Payment of war reparations set at $33 billion.

Military Restrictions Armed forces capped at a maximum of 100,000 men. Allied Occupations Occupation of the Rhineland by Allied troops for 15 years. COMMON ERROR Do not confuse territorial losses within Europe with colonial seizures. Germany lost 13% of its European territory (and 7 million citizens) alongside its separate colonial possessions in Africa and the Pacific. Collapse of Dynastic Empires and New European Borders The post-war settlement precipitated the fall of four long-standing dynasties: the German, Austro- Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian empires.

In their wake, new or re-established nation-states gained international recognition: Poland Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania World Wars & Modern International Relations " Study Notes 8 Yugoslavia Czechoslovakia China refused to sign the treaty because German colonial concessions in its territory were placed under Japanese control until 1922. Reorganization of the Middle East The disintegration of the Ottoman Empire reshaped the Middle East through new states and protectorates: Turkey: Formed as a sovereign country in 1923. Lebanon & Syria: Lebanon was partitioned from Syria as an independent state.

Iraq: Assembled by combining three former Ottoman provinces: Mosul in the north, Baghdad in the center, and Basra in the south. Palestine: Divided into Palestine and Trans-Jordan (later Jordan). Caucasus: International recognition of Georgia and Armenia. Persia (Iran after 1935): Placed under British control. Saudi Arabia: Established in 1932 by unifying disparate kingdoms. CHECK 18 Which three Ottoman administrative provinces were united to construct modern Iraq?

OUTLINE Post-Imperial Geopolitical Order Fallen Empires Collapse of 4 dynasties New European States Poland, Baltic states, Yugoslavia Middle Eastern Restructuring Mandates and newly drawn kingdoms Iraq Mosul, Baghdad, and Basra Turkey (1923) Sovereign national core Saudi Arabia (1932) United regional kingdoms World Wars & Modern International Relations " Study Notes 9 KEY IDEAS Versailles forced Germany to yield 13% of its domestic territory, lose all colonies, limit its army to 100,000 men, and accept $33 billion in reparations. Four major imperial dynasties collapsed: Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Russia.

New European nation-states arose, including Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, and the Baltic republics. The Middle East was partitioned, constructing modern Iraq from three provinces, creating Turkey in 1923, and forming Saudi Arabia in 1932. CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 19. Why did the Chinese delegation refuse to sign the Treaty of Versailles? 20. What military personnel limit was imposed on the German army by the treaty? Quiz Circle the correct answer. The answers are at the end. 21. What was the total financial reparation bill levied against Germany at Versailles? 22. How long was the Rhineland slated to remain occupied by Allied forces? 23.

In what year was Turkey established as an independent country? 24. Which unified nation-state was established in the Arabian peninsula in 1932? $17 billion a) $10 billion b) $33 billion c) $100 billion d) 25 years a) 5 years b) 10 years c) 15 years d) 1932 a) 1918 b) 1923 c) 1919 d) Persia a) Saudi Arabia b) Lebanon c) Trans-Jordan d) World Wars & Modern International Relations " Study Notes 10 4 International Organizations: League of Nations and the UN BY THE END YOU WILL BE ABLE TO Analyze the institutional weaknesses and diplomatic failures of the League of Nations. Identify the founding principles, leadership structure, and innovations of the United Nations in 1945.

THINK BEFORE YOU READ 25 Why did the world replace the League of Nations with the United Nations in 1945? The League of Nations: Aspirations and Failures The League of Nations emerged as the institutional predecessor to modern collective security frameworks. Conceived to resolve international disputes through diplomacy and rule-based consensus, it suffered structural weaknesses from the outset: Germany was barred from membership until granted explicit Allied permission. The United States never joined, significantly undermining the League's geopolitical authority.

Japan proposed an equality clause prohibiting racial discrimination; Allied delegates rejected it, causing Japan to distance itself from the organization. The League proved unable to stop aggression during major interstate crises: Conflict Details of League Inaction Chaco War (1932– 1935) Fought between Paraguay and Bolivia; the League failed to intervene even after Paraguay explicitly requested aid. Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) The Spanish foreign minister pleaded for League assistance against foreign intervention, but no practical aid arrived.

PROCESS Evolution of Collective Security Organizations 1 League of Nations Established post- WWI to maintain peace; US absent 2 Systemic Inaction Failed responses in Chaco War and Spanish Civil War 3 UN Charter (1945) Founding with 51 members and Big Four leadership 4 Peacekeeping & Rights Deployment of mili tary forces and hu man rights agendas World Wars & Modern International Relations " Study Notes 11 Media Propaganda and Wartime Discrimination Wartime media frequently employed propaganda of otherness. Information organs systematically dehumanized and discriminated against adversaries—such as Nazis or the Japanese—alongside racial minority groups, targeting any designated enemy.

Foundation of the United Nations (1945) Established in 1945, the United Nations was designed to rectify the operational defects of the League of Nations. Key structural changes included: Deployment of dedicated military peacekeeping forces. Broad initial membership of 51 nations (which has grown to 193). A core executive body dominated by the "Big Four": the USA, USSR, China, and the United Kingdom.

The 1945 founding conference generated critical debates regarding whether women's rights belonged within human rights definitions, how perceptions of race and Anglophilia shifted (as highlighted in Lutz's observations), the vindication of small and medium powers, and the groundwork for the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the family. CHECK 26 Why did the League of Nations fail to enforce collective security effectively? DEFINITION Peacekeeping forces are multinational military personnel organized under the United Nations to maintain ceasefires and enforce stability in volatile regions.

KEY IDEAS The League of Nations sought collective security but was hobbled by US absence and the exclusion of Germany. Rejection of Japan's racial equality clause alienated Japan from League diplomatic frameworks. The League failed to intervene effectively in both the Chaco War and the Spanish Civil War. Founded in 1945 by 51 member states, the UN instituted peacekeeping forces and established the Big Four leadership (USA, USSR, China, UK). CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 27. Which four states comprised the 'Big Four' at the founding of the United Nations in 1945? 28. What two conflicts exposed the inability of the League of Nations to enforce peace during the 1930s?

World Wars & Modern International Relations " Study Notes 12 Quiz Circle the correct answer. The answers are at the end. 29. Why did the United States fail to lead the League of Nations? 30. What Japanese proposal was rejected by the League of Nations? 31. How many founding member states joined the United Nations in 1945? 32. Which mechanism did the UN introduce to avoid the structural enforcement failures of the League? 5 Review Summary World War I and Wilsonian Diplomacy Concept Definition Arms Race (1910– 1913) Militarization and massive weapons expenditure by world powers justified under preventive deterrence.

Sarajevo Assassination (1914) The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by Gavrilo Princip that triggered Europe's network of mutual war declarations. Trench Warfare Brutal combat marked by inhumane living conditions, mass casualties (17M dead, 20M wounded), and post-war trauma. Geneva Protocol (1925) International conference agreement prohibiting the use of chemical weapons in warfare. Fourteen Points (1918) Woodrow Wilson's peace program advocating national self-determination, public diplomacy, free seas, and collective security.

It withdrew over reparations a) It never joined b) It was expelled by Japan c) It was barred by Britain d) Naval armament quotas a) Trade tariff reductions b) Asian colonial autonomy c) Racial equality clause d) 193 members a) 30 members b) 51 members c) 100 members d) Peacekeeping forces a) Secret diplomacy pacts b) Chemical weapons depots c) Reparations tribunals d) World Wars & Modern International Relations " Study Notes 13 Peace Negotiations and the Treaty of Versailles Concept Definition Paris Peace Conference (1919) Six-month global peace summit addressing borders worldwide under public scrutiny and fear of Bolshevism.

Treaty of Versailles Treaty imposing severe terms on Germany: $33 billion in reparations, 100,000 troop limit, 13% land loss, and Rhineland occupation. Congress of Vienna (1815) The sole historical precedent to Paris, characterized by secret elite diplomacy and an exclusively European scope. Propaganda of Otherness Wartime media messaging designed to dehumanize and discriminate against national enemies and minorities. Post-Imperial Reorganization Concept Definition Fallen Dynastic Empires The four imperial regimes that collapsed post-WWI: German, Austro- Hungarian, Russian, and Ottoman.

New European States Newly independent or restored nations, including Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. Middle Eastern Restructuring Partition of Ottoman territory creating Turkey (1923), modern Iraq (Mosul, Baghdad, Basra), Lebanon, and Saudi Arabia (1932). Collective Security Organizations Concept Definition League of Nations Predecessor to the UN whose authority was crippled by the absence of the US and inaction in the Chaco and Spanish Civil wars. Racial Equality Clause Japanese diplomatic proposal rejected at Paris, prompting Japan to distance itself from the League.

United Nations (1945) Collective organization formed by 51 founding states incorporating peacekeeping forces and Big Four leadership. The Big Four The core dominant powers at the 1945 UN founding: the United States, USSR, United Kingdom, and China. Key Historical Chronology Year Historical Event 1910–1913 Pre-war arms race among major world powers. World Wars & Modern International Relations " Study Notes 14 Year Historical Event 1914 Assassination of Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo; outbreak of World War I. 1918 Woodrow Wilson delivers his Fourteen Points speech. 1919 Paris Peace Conference convenes; signature of the Treaty of Versailles.

1922 Termination of Japanese control over former German concessions in China. 1923 Proclamation and recognition of the independent Republic of Turkey. 1925 Congress of Geneva establishes a prohibition on chemical weapons. 1932 Unification of regional kingdoms into the state of Saudi Arabia. 1932–1935 Chaco War between Paraguay and Bolivia; League of Nations fails to intervene. 1935 Persia is officially renamed Iran under British influence. 1936–1939 Spanish Civil War; the League of Nations fails to provide requested assistance. 1945 Inauguration of the United Nations with 51 charter member states. World Wars & Modern International Relations " Study Notes 15 Answers to the review questions 1.

Interlocking diplomatic alliances compelled rival powers to mobilize automatically once military action began between Austria-Hungary and Serbia. 2. Instability from the crumbling Ottoman Empire and regional rivalries culminated in Franz Ferdinand's assassination, which activated rigid mutual alliance commitments across Europe. 3. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to Austria-Hungary, by Gavrilo Princip. 4. The Congress of Geneva in 1925. 5. c) Preventive security. Powers claimed military accumulation was intended as preventive deterrence against rivals. 6. b) Germany. Germany entered the conflict to support its ally Austria-Hungary against Russia. 7. a) 17 million.

The war caused 17 million fatalities alongside 20 million wounded. 8. d) It decisively aided Allies. American entry provided crucial military and industrial weight that secured an Allied victory. 9. European powers demanded retribution, reparations, and war guilt penalties against defeated Germany rather than abstract collective reconciliation. 10. Paris operated under rapid public scrutiny with 30 nations and global territorial reach, unlike the quiet, unhurried, exclusively European focus of Vienna. 11. Finding a nation to blame for the war and exacting revenge by making Germany pay. 12. Britain sent only 15 delegates to Vienna, but deployed 400 delegates to Paris. 13. c) 1918.

Wilson introduced his Fourteen Points proposal in 1918 as fighting drew to a close. 14. d) Right to self-determination. Wilson advocated for national self-determination for subject peoples across central Europe and the Ottoman realm. 15. a) Six months. The negotiations in Paris spanned six months. 16. b) 30 nations. Thirty nations sent representatives to Paris, compared to only five at Vienna. 17. Former Ottoman provinces were reassembled into entirely new administrative entities and sovereign states like Iraq, Lebanon, Turkey, and Saudi Arabia. 18. Mosul in the north, Baghdad in the central zone, and Basra in the south. 19.

Because former German holdings in China were handed over to Japanese control until 1922. 20. The German military was restricted to no more than 100,000 men. 21. c) $33 billion. German reparations were fixed at $33 billion by the Allied powers. 22. d) 15 years. The treaty mandated Allied military occupation of the Rhineland for 15 years. 23. c) 1923. Turkey emerged as a sovereign state in 1923 following Ottoman dissolution. 24. b) Saudi Arabia. Saudi Arabia was founded in 1932 through the unification of separate regional kingdoms. 25. The League lacked enforcement tools and major-power participation, prompting the UN to create dedicated peacekeeping forces and a broader institutional alliance.

26. It lacked American membership, excluded major powers like Germany initially, alienated Japan over racial equality, and failed to deploy aid in conflicts such as the Chaco War and the Spanish Civil War. World Wars & Modern International Relations " Study Notes 16 27. The United States, the Soviet Union (USSR), China, and the United Kingdom. 28. The Chaco War (1932–1935) and the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939). 29. b) It never joined. Despite Woodrow Wilson's sponsorship, the United States never joined the League of Nations. 30. d) Racial equality clause. The rejection of its proposed racial equality clause led Japan to distance itself from the League. 31. c) 51 members.

The United Nations was inaugurated with 51 original member states (now expanded to 193). 32. a) Peacekeeping forces. The UN established peacekeeping forces to actively enforce stability and maintain peace. World Wars & Modern International Relations " Study Notes 17